ABSTRACT
La Diabetes Mellitus (DM) representa una de las Enfermedades Crónicas No Transmisibles (ECNT) más prevalentes del mundo, cuyas complicaciones agudas o emergencias hiperglucémicas más importantes, en el escenario de la medicina de urgencias, son la Cetoacidosis Diabética (CAD), el Estado Hiperglucémico Hiperosmolar (EHH) y la Hipoglucemia, todas ellas asociadas a un control inadecuado o insuficiente de la enfermedad. Con el objetivo de mejorar eficazmente la condición clínica de los pacientes que presentan algún tipo de emergencia hiperglucémica, los médicos del servicio de urgencias deben tener claridad en diversos aspectos clave relacionados con la fisiopatología y el abordaje apropiado para cada situación. En este artículo se reúne la información más actualizada respecto a la definición, epidemiología, etiopatogenia, manifestaciones clínicas, diagnóstico, tratamiento y prevención, de las tres complicaciones agudas de la DM, a fin de ofrecer al clínico una guía práctica para el abordaje y manejo adecuado de los pacientes diabéticos en el contexto de las emergencias hiperglucémicas.
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) represents one of the most prevalent Chronic Noncommunicable Diseases (NCDs) in the world, which acute complications or major hyperglycemic emergencies, in the scenario of emergency medicine, are Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA), the State Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic (EHH) and Hypoglycaemia, all associated with inadequate or insufficient control of the disease. In order to effectively improve the clinical condition of patients presenting with some type of hyperglycaemic emergency, emergency department physicians should be clear about various key aspects related to the pathophysiology and the appropriate approach for each situation. This article gathers the most up-to-date information regarding the definition, epidemiology, etiopathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of the three acute complications of DM mentioned above, in order to offer the clinician a practical guide for the approach and proper management of diabetic patients in the context of hyperglycemic emergencies.
Subject(s)
Diabetes Mellitus/epidemiology , Diabetic Ketoacidosis/epidemiology , Diabetes Complications , Diabetes Mellitus/therapy , Hyperglycemia/epidemiology , Hypoglycemia/epidemiologyABSTRACT
No abstract available.
Subject(s)
Aphasia, Broca , Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 , Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic ComaABSTRACT
Uncontrolled hyperglycemia termed hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome (HHS) is a serious but relatively common presentation of new-onset diabetes mellitus. The diagnosis of the disorder itself is fairly straight forward, but the search for trigger factors can be challenging. Infections are the usual precipitating factor, but a variety of other stressors can be involved such as the abuse of substances like alcohol, cocaine, and cannabis. Available evidence suggests that depression is common among diabetic patients. When such patients are also dependent on substances, it becomes challenging to distinguish between diabetes-related depression and substance-related depression. Clinicians managing diabetic patients need to be aware of comorbid conditions that may negatively impact patient care. We report herein a patient presenting with hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state with two possible precipitating factors; infection and substance abuse.
ABSTRACT
Antecedentes: La epidemia de la diabetes mellitus es reconocida por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) como una creciente amenaza mundial. Se calcula que en el mundo existen más de 180 millones de personas con diabetes y es probable que esta cifra aumente a más del doble para 2030. En México la diabetes ocupa el primer lugar en número de defunciones por encima de otros padecimientos crónicos, enfermedades infectocontagiosas o accidentes. Las complicaciones agudas de diabetes representan casi el 30% de las hospitalizaciones en la sala de urgencias y de ellos hasta el 10% de la mortalidad en dicho servicio. Objetivo: Identificar las características clínicas y epidemiológicas de los pacientes ingresados por complicaciones agudas de la diabetes mellitus al servicio de urgencias del Hospital General de Atizapán, un suburbio de la ciudad de México. Materiales y métodos: Se realizó un estudio prospectivo, transversal, descriptivo y observacional. El universo estuvo conformado por 1417 pacientes diabéticos que ingresaron al servicio de urgencias del Hospital General de Atizapán del 1 de julio de 2010 al 31 de junio del 2011. Resultados: Cien pacientes (7% del total) ingresaron con diagnóstico de complicaciones agudas de diabetes. La más frecuente fue la hipoglucemia, que se observó en 48% de los pacientes. En menor cantidad, 33% con cetoacidosis diabética, 17% con estado hiperosmolar y 2% con acidosis láctica. Presentando principalmente manifestaciones neurológicas y digestivas, la mayoría de ellos provenientes de nivel socioeconómico bajo. Conclusiones: La identificación oportuna de las características clínicas de las complicaciones agudas de la diabetes nos permite brindar atención rápida y eficaz, con lo que se evita mayor gravedad. Los factores sociales, culturales o educacionales pueden favorecer su aparición por lo que la educación para la salud será esencial en materia de prevención.
Background: The epidemic of diabetes mellitus is recognized by the World Health Organization as an increasing world menace. It has been estimated that there are more than 180 million diabetic patients in the world. This amount can double by the year 2030. In Mexico, diabetes is the first cause of mortality over other problems such as chronic or infectious diseases or accidents. Acute complications of diabetes account for almost 30% of the hospitalized patients in the emergency room, from which the mortality rate reaches 10%. Objective: To identify clinical and epidemiological features of the patients presenting acute complications of diabetes mellitus admitted to the emergency ward at Atizapan General Hospital, a suburb of Mexico City. Material and Methods: Prospective, transversal, descriptive, observational study with 1417 diabetic patients admitted to the emergency ward at Atizapan General Hospital from July the first, 2010 until June 31, 2011. Results: A hundred patients (7%) were admitted with a diagnosis of acute complications of diabetes. Hypoglycemia (48%) was the most frequent complication followed by diabetic ketoacidosis (33%), hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (17%) and finally lactic acidosis (2%). Neurological and digestive were the main symptoms and most patients came from low socioeconomic level. Conclusions: Timely identification of the clinical manifestations of acute complications of diabetes allows better and faster attention avoiding severe complications. Social, economic and cultural and/or educational factors may foster complications; therefore, health education is essential to prevent such conditions.
ABSTRACT
JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: A cetoacidose diabética (CAD) e o estado hiperglicêmico hiperosmolar (EHH) são as duas complicações agudas mais graves que se observa durante a evolução do diabetes mellitus. O objetivo deste estudo foi rever a fisiopatologia destas complicações com ênfase no tratamento da CAD e EHH. CONTEÚDO: A fisiopatologia da descompensação metabólica da CAD é mais entendida do que a do EHH. Fundamentalmente, na CAD o que ocorre é a redução da concentração efetiva de insulina circulante associada à liberação excessiva de hormônios contra-reguladores, entre eles, o glucagon, as catecolaminas, o cortisol e o hormônio de crescimento Esta combinação libera grandes quantidades de ácidos graxos livres na circulação. No fígado, estes ácidos graxos livres são oxidados em corpos cetônicos, resultando assim em cetonemia e acidose metabólica. Os principais critérios diagnósticos utilizados para a CAD são, a glicemia ≥ 250 mg/dL, o pH arterial ≤ 7,3, o bicarbonato sérico ≤ 15 mEq/L e graus variáveis de cetonemia e cetonúria. Para o EHH a glicemia em geral > 600 mg/dL, a osmolalidade sérica > 320 mOsm/kg e o bicarbonato sérico ≥ 15 mEq/L, com discreta cetonemia. As metas terapêuticas para as crises hiperglicêmicas agudas são: a liberação das vias aéreas superiores, a correção da desidratação com solução fisiológica, a correção dos distúrbios eletrolíticos e da acidose, a redução da hiperglicemia com insulina em baixas doses e a identificação e o tratamento dos fatores precipitantes. CONCLUSÃO: O rápido diagnóstico e o tratamento da CAD e do EHH são procedimentos essenciais para diminuir a morbimortalidade com estas doenças.
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and the hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) are the two most severe acute complications that are observed in diabetes mellitus. The objective of this study is to review the pathophysiology with emphasis in treatment of DKA and HHS. CONTENTS: The pathophysiology of DKA is better understood than that of the HHS. Fundamentally, in DKA the basic underlying mechanism is a reduction in the net effective action of circulating insulin associate with a concomitant elevation of counter-regulatory hormones, such as glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol and growth hormone. This combination releases great amounts of free fatty acids into the circulation from adipose tissues (lipolysis) that are transformed by oxidation to ketones bodies, causing ketonemia ad metabolic acidosis. The main criteria used to diagnoses DKA are plasma glucose ≥ 250 mg/dL, pH ≤ 7.3 and serum bicarbonate ≤ 15 mEq/L and variable degrees of ketonemia and ketonuria. To diagnose HHS, the criteria are plasma glucose greater than 600 mg/dL, serum osmolality > 320 mOsm/kg and serum bicarbonate ≥ 15 mEq/L with mild ketonemia. The main therapeutical purpose of treating acute hyperglycemic crises require care of the upper airways, correction of dehydration with fluid therapy (saline solution), correction of electrolyte imbalance and acidosis, reduction of hyperglycemia with low-dose insulin therapy, and identification as well as the treatment of comorbidity precipitating events. CONCLUSION: The rapid diagnosis and treatment of DKA and HHS are essential procedures to reduce morbimortality of these diseases.
Subject(s)
Humans , Diabetic Ketoacidosis/physiopathology , Diabetes MellitusABSTRACT
Acute renal failure is the most common complication of rhabdomyolysis. However, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) induced-rhabdomyolysis rarely causes acute renal failure (ARF) because HHS induces osmotic diuresis and prevents tubular necrosis. Here we report a case of acute renal failure caused by HHS-induced rhabdomyolysis in a patient with poorly controlled diabetes mellitus. A 59-year-old male was admitted with comatose mentality. He had been diagnosed with diabetes mellitus 6 months ago but had not been treated. Physical examination showed severe dehydration of oral mucosa. His laboratory findings demonstrated severe HHS, rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure (plasam glucose 1,543 mg/dL, osmolarity 329 mOsm/L, creatine phophokinase 15,395 IU/L, lactate dehydrogenase 1,046 IU/L, creatinine 2.4 mg/dL). With adequate hydration and insulin therapy, HHS improved but rhabdomyolysis and ARF were more aggravated. With early hemodialysis treatment, he finally improved without sequale.
Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Acute Kidney Injury , Coma , Creatine , Creatinine , Dehydration , Diabetes Mellitus , Diuresis , Glucose , Insulin , L-Lactate Dehydrogenase , Mouth Mucosa , Necrosis , Osmolar Concentration , Physical Examination , Renal Dialysis , RhabdomyolysisABSTRACT
Objective To investigate the effect of intravenous fluid infusion combined with water throuth gastrointestinal tract in treating the patients with hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state(HHS).Methods 30 HHS pa- tients were recruited.All the patients were given water throuth gastrointestinal infusion while they were administrat- ed continuously intravenous infusion.Laboratory parameters such as serum natrium,serum potasium,serum glucose and serum osmolarity ect were monitored at the admission and after treatment.Results Serum glucose and serum osmolarity of HHS patients were decreased smoothly at the speed of less than 3 mmol?L~(-1).h~(-1)during the first 12 hours after treatment.After 48 hour-treatment,serum natrium,serum potassium and serum osmolarity recovered to normal levels except 2 deaths,serum glucose decreased to(10.8?5.2)mmol/L.Conclusion Intravenous fluid infu- sion combined with water throuth gastrointestinal tract for the patients could lower smoothly serum glucose and serum osmolarity and decrease the mortality of the HHS patients.